Nervous System 2

Cerebrum - largest part of the brain

- divided from the cerebellum by the transverse fissure

Gyri - ridges Lobes - large section Sulci - grooves

Four Types of Lobes:

• Frontal lobe - anterior lobes, separated through' other by central sulci

- responsible for motor activities, conscious thought and speech

• Parietal lobe - posterior to the parietal lobe

- body sense perception, taste and speech

• Occipital lobe - posterior to the parietal lobe

- vision

• Temporal lobe - most inferior

- hearing and integration of emotions

Insula - often listed as the 5th lobe, and helps coordinate autonomic functions

Cerebellum - known as the little brain, sensory and motor coordination and balance

Brain stem - stalk-like structure

Three section of the brain stem:

• Medulla Oblongata - continous with the spinal cord

- control heartbeat, breathing and the cardiovascular system

• Pons - connects the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the upper portion of the brain
• Mid Brain - most superior portion

Cortex - layer of gray matter surrounding the white matter

Ventricles - fluid - filled cavities

Precentral gyrus - anterior at the central sulcus

Postcentral gyrus - posterior to the central sulcus

Corpus callosum - white matter surrounding the lateral ventricles

Diencephalon - a section of the brain that is not visible from the extension

Four types of Diencephalon :

• Thalamus - relays and process information going to the cerebrum
• Hypothalamus - regulates hormone levels, temperature, water-balance, thirst, appetite and some emotions, it also regulates the pituitary gland and controls the endocrine system
• Pineal body - responsible for secreting melatonin
• Pituitary gland - secretes hormones for various functions

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Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS) - brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - everything outside the brain and spinal cord with represented the input and outputpathways
• Sensory System - nervous system "input device"
• Motor System - output system

- carries orders to all 3 types of muscle and to the body's glands

• Somatic Nervous System - controls skeletal muscle and usually voluntary movements
• Automatic Nervous System - controls smooth and cardiac muscle in your orgons
• Parasymphathetic - resting and digesting

- deals with normal functioning

• Sympathetic - fight or flight

- body's alert system

• Nervous tissue - contains no epithelium, no connective tissue and no muscle tissue

Four types of (CNS) :

• Astrocytes - metabolic and structural support cells
• Microglia - remove debris
• Epedymal - covering and lining cavities
• Oligodendrytes - make a lipid insulation called myelin

Two types of (PNS) :

• Schwann cells - makes myelin for PNS
• Satellite cells - support cells

Neurons - Control function of the nervous system

• dendrites - receive information from the environment of from other cells
• axon - generates and send signals to other cells
• axon terminal - connects to a receiving cell
• synapse - combination of axon terminal and receiving cell
• neuromuscular synapse or junction - the receiving cell is skeletal muscle
• sensory neuron - input neurons
• motor neuron - output neurons
• inter neurons - neurons that carry info. between neurons
• Neurons - an exitable cells

- carries a small electrical charges

• Polarized - not stimulating, resting cell
• Depolarized - more positive than resting cells
• Repolarization - the inside of the cells becomes more negative again, returning to rest
• Hyperpolarized - more negative than at rest
• action potential - whole series of permeability changes
• local potential - the size of the stimulus determines the excitement of the cell
• impulse conduction - action potential travels down the axon from tha cell body to the terminal
• nodes of Ranvier - bare spots between adjacent glial cells
• neurotransmitters - sends signal
• spinal cord - located in a hollow tube running inside the vertebral column

Integumentary System :DD

The integumentary system is the organ system that protects the body from damage, comprising the skin and its appendages. The integumentary system has a variety of functions, it may serve to waterproof, cushion, and protect the deeper tissue, excrete waste, and regulate temperature, and is the attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure, ant temperature. In humans the integumentary system also provides vitamin D synthesis. The integumentary system is the largest organ system.

Epidermis:

This is the top layer of skin made up of epithelial cells. It does not contain blood vessels. Its main function is protection, absorption of nutrients, and homeostasis. In structure, it consists of a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium comprising four types of cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans' cells. The major cell of the epidermis is the keratinocyte, which produces keratin. Keratin is a fibrous protein that aids in protection. Millions of dead keratinocytes rub off daily. The majority of the skin on the body is keratinized, meaning waterproofed. The only skin on the body that is non-keratinized is the lining of skin on the inside of the mouth. Non-keratinized cells allow water to "sit" atop the structure.

Dermis:

The dermis is the middle layer of skin, composed of loose connective tissues such as collagen with elastin arranged in a diffusely bundled and woven pattern. These layers serve to give elasticity to the integument, allowing stretching and conferring flexibility, while also resisting distortions, wrinkling, and sagging. The dermal layer provides a site for the endings of blood vessels and nerves. Many chromatophores are also stored in this layer, as are the bases of integumental structures such as hair, feathers, and glands.

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Skeletal System :DD

The human skeleton consists of both fused and individual bones supported and supplemented by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage. It serves as a scaffold which supports organs, anchors muscles, and protects organs such as the brain, lungs and heart. The biggest bone in the body is the femur in the thigh, and the smallest is the stapes bone in the middle ear. In an adult, the skeleton comprises around 30-40% of the total body weight, and half of this weight is water.

Fused bones include those of the pelvis and the cranium. Not all bones are interconnected directly: there are three bones in each middle ear called the ossicles that articulate only with each other. The hyoid bone, which is located in the neck and serves as the point of attachment for the tongue, does not articulate with any other bones in the body, being supported by muscles and ligaments.

Six major Function Of The Skeleton:

• Support - The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis and associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the ribs, costal cartilages, and the intercostal muscles the lungs would collapse.
• Movement - The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.
• Protection - The Skeleton protects many vital organs
• Blood Cell Production - The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, which takes place in red bone marrow. Marrow is found in the center of long bones.
• Storage - Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium,but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone.
• Endocrine regulation - Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.

Muscle :DD

The Muscle is the contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to produce force and cause motion. Muscles can cause either locomotion of the organism itself or movement of internal organs. Cardiac and smooth muscle contraction occurs without conscious thought and is necessary for survival. Examples are the contraction of the heart and peristalsis which pushes food through the digestive system. Voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscles is used to move the body and can be finely controlled. Examples are movements of the eye, or gross movements like the quadriceps muscle of the thigh. There are two broad types of voluntary muscle fibers: slow twitch and fast twitch. Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force while fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly.

Muscles are predominately powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads.

Types of muscle:

• Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture.
• Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control.
• Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more akin in structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart.